Write up one to two pages about one of the ideas that you found most Essay

Write up one to two pages about one of the ideas that you found most interesting in Smelser and Reed, p. 185-253 - Essay Example Additionally, size in the context of organizations has effects that directly have an effect on the efficiency and the structure. It is captivating that Smelser and John perceive the size of an organization to be affected and determined by various aspects including activities distribution in time and space. The distribution of activities in time and space has a major effect on the organization, which influence the decisions made to achieve the desired outcome. Interestingly, Smelser and John indicate that greater size is associated with greater complexity and formalization; hence, they believe that size carries not only the definition of how large or small an organization is, but also the variations in the organization’s authoritative hierarchy and culture. The authors further outline the cautions necessary in handling effects associated with size including developments such as outsourcing, specializations, and virtual organization. Consequently, it is interesting that the size of an organization is linked to every other aspect of economies of scale and the dissemination of activities in time and

Strategic 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategic 2 - Essay Example Automobile manufacturers’ sales proved the most lucrative for the global automobiles industry in 2008, generating total revenues of $1,698.5 billion, equivalent to 95.19% of the industry's overall value. In comparison, sales of motorcycles generated revenues of $85.8 billion in 2008, equating to 4.81% of the industry's aggregate revenues. The performance of the industry is forecast to accelerate, with an anticipated CAGR of 4.5% for the five-year period 2008-2013, which is expected to drive the industry to a value of $2,220 billion by the end of 2013. 1) Threat of New Entrants: A tremendous increase in raw material costs in recent years has resulted in pressure on both market players and suppliers. The diverse markets in which suppliers operate have reduced their reliance on the automobile industry. Barriers such as stern government regulations, high fixed costs and exit barriers hinder new entrants to the market. Competition in the industry has increased as a result of econom ic downturn. 2) Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Suppliers such as steel and aluminum manufacturers are often large companies who supply to a wide variety of industries, reducing their dependence on the automobile manufacture market.

History of Transportation

History of Transportation History of Transportation Transportation was, is and will be one of the most important issues of peoples life. It accounts centuries. Definition of transportation can be different, as the reason, it can mean the trip between two places, two villages, for trade, war or maybe just for journey. It can be done using air, water or land. Transports transformed during centuries and today look much different than in nineteenth or at the beginning of twentieth century and much different than it was in early stages. Transportation is an integral part of history, history itself, in point of fact, has often been determined by movement across the land-movement of armies, of whole peoples in migration and of trade. In the early stages progress rate in land transportation was very slow. Man from the beginning was characterized by movement from one place to another, searching some food, attacking his neighbors, to find wife in other groups and so on. The main goals of man in early stages were: hunting and abduction. But all of these was often behind the human migration, the stronger conquering the weaker. Man for on his own feet could travel more than three miles per hour. Despite the flexibility of his physical structure, he was compared to other animals, which were stronger, more agile, and swifter, but the human animal had certain advantages, big brain, flexible hand structure, he had to walk upright, freeing his hands for the use of tools. Later man started to evaluate substitutes. Firstly he had dragged all the things he needed, but later the man understood that someone else also could do it by his direction and regulation. The animals: dogs, elephants, donkeys camels became the first, who a ppeared in the history of transportation. The earliest vehicle seems to have been the sledge. Very possibly the sledge had its origin in a simple branch drawn behind a man or beast. For thousand years ago the Egyptians used much the same kind of vehicle, but with heavier and stronger runners, to transport immense blocks of stone , some weighing as mush as 800 or 900 tones. So as we see the sledge was very useful, but later however the wheel made its progress. The oldest examples of wheel are found in Mesopotamia and date from the fourth millennium B.C., among the Sumerians, Akkadians, Elamites and Chaldeans. Sumerians were the first people who reach the civilization, so they seem to have been the first who used the full wheel. At the beginning it was three planks of wood , which were pegged together in a rough circle. Soon they strengthened it, using a metal band or tire and finally hollowed out for lightness and equipped with spokes. For a long time the chariots was reserved for the nobility, for trade or by the common peop le as wagons, but it was later. Sumerian chariot changed very little over a thousand years , until the introduction of the horse from central Asia. In the seventeenth century B.C. horse-drawn chariot made its appearance. It became the principal weapon of the Assyrians, who eventually subdues most of the civilized world. [1] The biggest transformations in transport sector started from the construction of roads. Romans constructed a huge road system that made possible to use different types of vehicles and also develop new ones. They had 20 different types of vehicles, from the two-wheeled carpentum, which was very fast and light and had a leather hoot for protection of drivers , to the four-wheel carruca, which could carry whole family. The first real roads, that were constructed were very short. Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar had its famous Procession street , which was made with large stones over a foundation of asphalt, which led through the city to a substantial bridge across the Euphrates. For facilitating the transportation of heavy blocks of stone the Egyptians built roads, which were short, but very broad. Times changed and from year to year people started to invent more energetically and interesting things for transportation. Historically horse, pulling a vehicle was very useful for people, but later they started to create different kinds of apparatus, which provided for them more energy to get from one place to another, from time to time. And so we come to the curious mechanical vehicles of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and which were operated by land levers. First everything started with invention of different and small carriages, which was possible to drive without horses. In 1645 Jean Theson create a small four-wheeled carriage , which was driven without horses for two seated man. Another invention was made by German , Hautsch around 1600, which also was used without horses. The ancient Chinese had attached some sails for their cart, which helped them along, the elector Johann Friedrich built a vehicle of this type in Europe in 1543. In 1600 Simon Stevin a military engineer, built a famous chariot, it had two masts, a plough-shaped rudder and all kinds of ingenious devices for trimming or lowering the sails with dispatch. In 1826 an English man , George Pocock launched smaller carriage, which he called flying Chariot, of course without horses, it worked average from 15 to 20 miles an hour. There was also another wind-propelled vehicles , named Flying Coach , which was invented by Non Jose Boscasa and Hacquets Eolienne The latter , favored by a southwest wind, actually sailed through the streets of Paris one day in 1834. The first steam carriage which actually worked and could not go faster than 4 miles per hour was Nicolas Cugnots fardier , a large cart. Intended to transport guns or other heavy loads , it was made of stout beams and had three huge , iron-strapped wheels, with power delivered direct to the single wheel in front by two massive cylinders. A big boiler and firebox were suspended over the front wheel, making it even more cumbersome. This frightening monster , which was tested before the Minister Choiseul in 1769, had to stop every 15 minutes to get up more steam and vibrated so much that it finally escaped from its inventor and tore into a wall of the arsenal. Nevertheless, it was the first vehicle in which the thrust of pistons successfully turned a driving wheel; in order words it was really the first automobile .[2] The fardier can still be seen at the Conservatoire des Arts et MÃ ©tiers in Paris. On view at the Birmingham Museum is the second forerunner of the automobile, a small steam model built by William Murdock, Watts assistant in 1784. With its light wheels and little smokestack at the back it looks frail compared to the heavy fardier. The third pioneer vehicle was Oliver Evanss steam carriage, which he drove through the streets of Philadelphia toward the end of 1804. It was a huge amphibious boat which had been built to dredge the Schuylkill River. Evans named it the Orukter Amphibolos or the digger which works all ways because it was equipped with wheels for land travel and paddlewheel for the water. And it actually worked ,lumbering several miles over uneven ground before entering the river, where the paddlewheel took over from the belts which drove the wheels. In 1891 Richard Trevithick , helped by Andre Vivian, built a steam carriage with the engine in the rear which could carry about a dozen passengers at nine miles an hour. Two years later, before turning to the steam railway, Trevithick actually ran a steam tricycle through the streets of London. In the next 30 years or so quite a number of self -propelled steam carriages were built and operated on the new , hard surfaced roads of England and with considerable success. Outstanding was the steam carriage of Goldsworthy Gurney, which weighed two tones. By 1832 his coach was running on schedule four times daily between Gloucester and Cheltenham. In 396 trips it carried 3 000 passengers without mischance. Around 1834 Walter Hancock was operating several lines, including his Paddington-City of London run. But all these coaches disappeared and the same happened in France even through Onesiphore Pecqueur in 1828 had invented true modern steering with two wheels, and the differential for a re ar-wheel drive. Later train became very popular among other transports, its success was irresistible, of course because it could go faster with great safety and economy and also could carry more passengers. The railroad interests combines with owners of horse drawn stages , with people who sold horses , with turnpike companies , and farmers who grew oats for fodder -pushed through a series of laws hampering and taxing the road locomotives, forbidding them to travel faster than four miles an hour and finally requiring a man with a red flag to precede each self-propelled vehicle on a public highway. The latter act was not repealed until 1896. thus with the failure of the steam coaches Britain was deprived of any chance for an early lead in the automobile field. Bollees, were father and sons , who brought steam back on the road. Their first machine was the Obeissante a 15- horsepower monster weighing five tones and traveling at 24 miles per hour. It was well received when it was shown in Paris in 1873 . Five years later the Mancelle, a much smaller machine ,made its importance, it was much more economical. By this time Bollee machines became known throughout the Europe. There was the Marie-Anne , Nouvelle of 1880 , which could do 27 miles per hour , per Avant-Courrier of the same year and the Rapide of 1881. Count Albert de Dion, with the mechanic Georges Bouton, worked out a little three-wheeler in 1883 which could be drive by one man. He followed it with others, faster and more economical. But the principal inconveniences remained: the driver had to stock water and coal, light the fire, wait for his car to get up steam and finally he had to abandon all thoughts of traveling faster then 24 miles per hour prescribed by law. There is a great need. Baudry de Saunier wrote, to produce almost instantly and with little pressure the quantity of steam needed and to do it with a strictly non-explosive boiler.ÂÂ » Leon Serpollet, last of the great steam-car inventors , did prissily this , making the Paris to Enghien-less-Bains run in 1888 on a kind tricycle which answered Baudry de Sauniers equipments. In 1890, with Ernst Archdeacon , he made the Paris-Lyon run in ten days. At Nice in 1902 Serpollet achieved a speed of 75 miles per hour. An eclectic automobile by Nicolas Raffard appeared in Paris in 1883 . About the same time an English man , Magnus Volk, brought out a similar car, while a carriage builder named Jentaud produced one with a seven horse-power engine that could make 15 miles an hour. Later on , a racing car by Jenataud achieved a world record- 56 miles per hour. This was finally capped by Camille Jenatzys electric Jamais Contente, which did 65 miles per hour. At the end of nineteenth century, when the gasoline automobile was still young, it seemed for a time as if the electric car might be the automobile of the future. Many were built -silent, powerful, and comfortable and were a common sight up into the 1920s, especially in the cities. But electric traction had a serious defect: the batteries often weighed a ton, and the driver had to stop frequently to recharge them. [3] It is difficult to say, who was the inventor of the first engine . Philippe Lebon in 1800 planned to explode a medley of air and lighting gas in a cylinder to move a piston.. Other inventors used gases and hydrocarbons as fuel and experimented mostly in design. Combustion engine first became commercially successful in middle of nineteenth century with small gas engines,, whose inventor was French, Joseph Etienne Lenoir. The next was to compress the mixture before exploding it , an idea which was worked out in terms of the conventional engine by Beau de Rochas, in 1862 . The idea was taken up in 1867 by Nikolaus Otto, he produced engine two times, as economical one and as fast as Lenoirs. His four-cycle Otto Silent of 1876 led directly to the modern automobile engine. Daimler, hitting upon gasoline as a fuel, produced a lightweight engine which he tested on a bicycle in 1885 , thus unwittingly inventing the motorcycle. His first automobile was a four-wheeler. Benzs was a simple three-wheeler , but it had some features, that anticipated the modern automobile., a rudimentary water-cooling radiator, differential gear and electrical instead of flame ignition. Its engine was a four-cycle. Like the Daimler , its speed was around 10 miles per hour. . Daimler sold his patent to Rene Panhard and the engineer Emile Levassor, who wanted to introduce the automobile to France. The first test was in 1890 and 1891 . The objective was to go from Porte dIvry to the Viaduct of Auteuil and back without engine trouble, an objective that was soon achieved. After this the firm of Ponhard-Levassor received its first order and soon was sharing it with Armand Peugeot who also used the patent of Daimler. In 1894 by Pierre Giffard of the Petit Journal organized the first great race between Paris and Rouen-77 miles, the competition was between all types of automobiles: whether steam, electric, or gasoline. The winner was Count Albert de Dion, who averaged 13 miles per hour in the little steam car. In 1895 a second race was organized ,much longer and more difficult, fro Paris to Bordeaux and return, a distance of 744 miles. Steam was represented by one of count de Dions cars, two Serpollets, and Bollees Mancelle, gasoline by a Panhard Levassor and three Peugeots and electricity by Jeantaud . From the 21 vehicles, which participated, Panhard Levassor was who won, completing the course in less than half of 100 hours anticipated by the organizers. The superiority of gasoline over steam and electricity was proved beyond a doubt. The race proved also that an automobile, like a bicycle could and should ride upon air. Michelin Brothers had been proved a success -even through they had to be ch anged by the drivers every 93 miles. The next round was infernal and murderous, right up to the Indianapolis race of today , the 24 hors of the Le Mans , of Monte Carlo, of other places. There was the Tour de France, from Paris to Berlin, the Paris-Vienna , the Gordon Bennett Cup and the bloody Paris- Madrid race of 1903, in which was killed Marcel Renault. During the Competition the roads between cities were turned into mad circuses filled with surging crowds. Out of the noise was born Germanys Taunus meet, Italys Monza, Englands Brooklands and in the United States , the Atlantic City. From year to year the automobiles improved. Then there were rallies and competitions, which sent the automobiles in different sides of the world. The United States , saw its first successful gasoline automobile in 1893-that of Charles and Frank Duryea. It was a small, four-horsepower phaeton with little engine. American Automobile industry comes form 1896, when the Duryea Motor Wagon Company produced 14 cars. The First Packard introduced in 1899. But the real contribution of United States was in mass production and the start player , her was Henry Ford, who is famous for all of us. Henry Ford first started with stem, but later he left the idea. He put together his first successful gasoline buggy in 1896, then series of cars 999, the Arrow and others and could not decide , which one of them was better. The answer on this question, later was received in Europe , first by Citroen and then by others. The immediate result was the Model T Ford. In 1909 Henry Ford had written that that the automobile of the future must be superior to the present car to beget confidence in the man of limited means , and sufficiently lower in price to insure sales for an enormously increased output. He said: the car of the future must be a car for peoplethe market for a lower-priced car is unlimited. [4]And latter, every one saw ,that he was really write, because the number of sold cars sharply increased. Between 1908 and 1928 there were sold more than 15 million Model T Fords. During 1925 , only in one day alone, more than 9000 were built.[5] Later the competitors and successors follo wed the example of Henry Ford, because it was really good idea, who else could imagine and do it. The First design of carriage in Italy , which could run without horses , was done by famous artist Leonardo da Vinci, if we look back. But Father Barsanti and Professor Mattenci were, who together took out a patent for a gas engine in 1854. In 1894 Colonel Bordino produced a small automobile. But the real beginning was in 1895 , the year the celebrated Agnelli created the no less celebrated Fiat in Turin. A Fiat in 1907 won a magnificent triple victory: the Traga Florio, the Sarthe circuit and the Emperors Cup. The road had been prepared for the elegant automobile, for automobiles, which are named as Lancia, Ferrari, Maserati and Alfa-Romeo. Now the automobile has everything it needed, things such as four-cylinder engine, wheels of the same size all around, electric lighting, an electrical self-starter , and for all of that we have to be thankful for American inventor Charles Kettering, who invented this automobile in 1911. [6] Looking at all these historical points we saw that the transportation was important not only in nineteenth century and today, but it comes from much earlier period, people used transportation for different reasons .During many years transportation transformed and the period from the nineteenth century to the present was the period of amazing changes and progresses in automobile industry. Transportation started by foots with man from early stages and today continues with luxury automobiles. In past we saw that the automobile was very luxury and very expensive pleasure for people, but today it is very necessary thing, which has almost all families and use them for different necessity , but as it was as in past , today automobile industry also feels and faces many different problems . What will be tomorrow nobody knows, how transportation and automobile industry can transform, maybe we can dream about something more, about something unbelievable in this sector. Meaning ofCommon Transport Policy Since the entry into force of the Treaty of Rome in 1958, the transport industry ,faithful servant that it is ,has undergone significant change in order to adopt to the growth and needs of international trade. [7] The Treaty of Rome provides the legal basis for the creation of a common transport policy . Next to agriculture and commercial policy the Common Transport Policy is one of the three common policies specially mentioned n Article 3 of the Treaty as one of the activities the Community must pursue in order to establish a common market and progressively to and progressively approximate the economic policies of the Member StatesÂÂ ». Irrespective of the Treaty provisions, transport policy left under the control of the Member States . The Member States pursue different transport policies and proceed from different bases for State intervention. [8] Common policy means reformulating the policies of Member States to form a single Community policy: a process of integration culminating is supranational transport policy. [9] The main aim of the policy is to shun the difference between Member States. Transport industry has few differences from other industrial sectors. When we are talking about economic fields: Transport is used as an instrument of State economic policy. Transport is a major industry by such criteria , that ii is measured : employment , investment and etc. [10]In transport sectors are employed high percentage of workers . Transport sector of EU-15 employed 6.2 million people, and that increased to 7.4 million after enlargement of 2004.[11] Transport industry is important activity to other industrial sectors and its levels of rates are crucial to the States economy. In a market promoting specialized production, the consumer and the producer , both depend on transport , to meet their each others needs. The independent carrier, occupies a central position in the market as a whole: this his policies, unless regulated, can hinder international trade by discriminating as to charges between producers or also between consumers. Some regulations are important for modes which are covered but Transport , such as road rail, inland, waterway, sea and air, because most of them are competing with each other and sometimes conflicts are irreversible. Transport is an industry with public service obligations, where governments often intervene by obliging some services and also by controlling the tariffs. Railways are used an instrument of economic policy, where public financing of the infrastructure is very common. In case of roads, the building of roads often depends on the State, but once the roads are built and open to traffic many different types of users take advantage of their existence. Transport industry is characterized by undertakings of dissimilar structure, which provides interchangeable services. Inelasticity in the supply of transport owing of the perishability of its services makes full freedom of competition impracticable. Transport sector is subject to many international agreements, whose some of the Member states are parties and have to fulfill international obligations. In area of inland waterways, the Commission has incomplete competence because of relationships with third countries. The Rhine regime, which is established by the Mannheim Convention in 1868 , with Central Commission implementing its provisions, cannot be ignored. The Central Commission, within the EC territory governs the most important single constituent in inland transport. The area of air and maritime transport are governed by many international treaties. All this factors which are mentioned above made difficulties for the Union to develop such as policies, which will spirit the integration of transport services and satisfy the needs of the single European market. [12] The most important changes in European Transport industry started from 1970s, when increased the usage of road transport. This gross was really dramatic and it effected the railway transport. During the 1970s the rails share of the passenger market has fallen from 10.2 % to 6.3 %.[13] European railway increased investment on developing fundamental new techniques and infrastructures, such as high speed trains: TGV, Eurostar and etc., for competition with other transports modes. Also was mentioned the high increase in air transport for long-haul journeys and maritime transport has been relegated to the short-haul ferry market. [14] In the European Union transport sector is very important issue, it provides 4% of the GDP. Also as we already mentioned above, it provides employment for EU citizens. In 1991, employees in the transport sector constituted between 4 % and 5% of waged labor. It amounted to 5.6 million people, 2, 509000 of them were employed in road transport, 897000 in rail transport , 24 000 in inland waterway transport , 217000 in maritime and 349000 in air and 1569000[15] in other sector which are related to transport industry. Transport sector is the growth industry in European Union. The demand In industry is generally proportionate to Gross Domestic Product. Taking the average annual economic growth in the European Union since 1970 as 2.6 %, the growth in goods transport services has been 2.3 % and passenger transport services 3.1%. Transport is the link which brings together people and products from all European regions, above all the remoter regions. Transport in European Union was and is characterized by a great measure of government invention and a confused network of bilateral and multilateral inter-state agreements in which the Member States used to and still participate. [16] When we speak about Common Transport Policy it is important to distinguish three phases of this policy. First phase of the transport policy started after the entry into force of Treaty of Rime and continued till 1973-1974. During this phase , the European Community , was concentrated on creation of common market fro transport by road, inland waterways, rail and opening the national market between all Member States for competition. This idea was formulated in 1961 Memorandum by Commission and in 1962 Action Programme. [17] First phase of Common transport policy involved discussions between Member States and Commission, because the provisions giver by the Treaty were not concreted to what it should contain. At the end of the second phase, from 1973 , the accession of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom to the European Community introduced more liberal and less land-centred views into inactive transport policy [18] At the end of 1973, The development of Common Transport Policy was determined again by the Commission and The Council . In 1974 in maritime and air transport sector two important events took place for development of Common Transport Policy : the Court gave judgment in the French Seamen case and under the auspices of the United Nations, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Code of Conduct for Liner Conference was adopted. [19] Third phase started from 1983, when the various proposals for structured development of the Common Transport Policy , in several memoranda concerning the inland ( 1983), air (1984) and maritime ( 1985) sectors.[20] Speaking about Transport policy it is important to mention the main factors, which influence , such as: geography, technology, wealth. The oldest influence probably lies in the physical features of European geographical environment, which can encourage or discourage travel. It is relatively easy to travel up and down a river valley such as the Rhine and Danube , much harder to cross major physical barriers such as the Alps or the Pyrenees other then by air. Most traffic crossing the English Channel or the Baltic has to go by the sea, though there is now a Channel Tunnel Between England and France, opened in 1994 and the Oresund bridge between Denmark and Sweden, opened in 2000. There are four rail tunnels through the Alps and seven road crossings, but some of these are open in summer only, and the two road tunnels between France and Italy, opened in 1965 and 1980, are single-bore with just one line of traffic in each direction. Heavy-goods traffic is heavily dependent on these two narrow tunnels, another under the Gotthard Pass in Switzerland and the one major four-lane highway which crosses the Brenner Pass at 1, 3 72 meters. The only significant rail and road crossings of the Pyrenees follow the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. Since these mountain chance and sea crossing generally coincide with national frontiers, which indeed they have often determined, they also contribute to keeping national transport policies separate. [21]Sometimes the national frontiers doesnt coincide the physical barriers. People always thought about travel and trading goods in places ,where they can use their own language , were their rights are respected and they have easier access to the education and medical system. It is very interesting in this case to mention the situation in German after the Second World War .When Germany was divided into two parts its system of roads and railways , built to facilitate military and civilian communications on East and West axis, had to be reconfigured to strengthen North-South communications on either side of the Iron Curtain.[22] After the reunification European Union is reducing the importance of national frontiers, for example with the creation of single currency of Europe-Euro, but for some people it is difficult to cross the borders and go to study or work , for few of the it is unbelievable to cross national borders, even where are no the physical barriers , who can avoid them. Even with the single European market, the volume of international trade in 1994 was only about 7% of the tonnage mowed within national frontiers.[23] Second important influencing on transport policy is technology. As we already mentioned, when we discussed the history of transportation , transport sector developed many times, during many years, first the feet presented the main transport for people, then transports developed by wheel , sail ant etc and over the past 250 years the steam engine, internal combustion engine, the jet engine , and electric traction have each facilitated a step-change in technology [24] the main objective of such as technological revolutions are to make transportation more comfortable, easier, cheaper and safer. The third factor which has the major influence on transport policy is wealth. There is very strong correlation between economic performance as measured by gross domestic product and the growth of goods and passenger transport. It seems that the more we earn , the more we spend on travel and on the consumption of goods which themselves have to be transported over long distances to reach our homes .And there is no sign as yet that these trends will not continue to generate a steadily increasing demand for transport. In 2001 Transport White Paper, the commission estimated that GDP growth of 43% between 1998 and 2010 will generate increases in the movement of passengers and goods of 24% and 38% receptivity. [25] Transport policy as we already mentioned above is very important issue for European Union , because it is important policy for economic sector of the Union, for Environment, for Labor Market and also for competition. And European Union always tries to implement different strategies to improve and reconstructure this policy for the weal-being of the citizens. Modes of Transport Transport sector covers different modes such as: road transport, railway, waterway and air transport. Development of all these modes is different by times and by structures. In this part we will discuss recent developments in European different modes of transport sector. Personal mobility has more then doubled from 17km a day in 1970 to 38km in the late 1990s.Road transport is Europes dominant transport mode and its dominance continues to grow. Private car ownership in the EU -15 increased from 232 per thousand in 1975 to 469per thousand in 2000 and continues to grow .[26] Road transport at the end of 1990s represented 44% of the goods transport market compared with 44% for short sea shipping, 8% for rail and 4% for inland waterways. In passenger transport it represented 79% of the market, 5 % of air and also 6% of railways. Development of road transport is very important and interesting case , because during last years the volume of road freight grew by 3.5% a year and 7% in the case of cross-border freight. The roads now take about 75% of freight traffic within the EU , compared with less than 50% in 1970. As regards road transport, the key mode is the private car and growth in car use. During last 30 years the number of cars tripled, at an increase of 3 million cars each year. For 1975 there were 232 cars per 1000 people and now there are 444 cars per 1000 persons.[27] For promotion of more safety transport , European Union introduced some legislations on the driver qualifications, inspection of cars

Antigone :: essays research papers

Greek Tragedy: Sophocles’ Antigone   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The struggle between right and wrong, the demands between family and that of the government, and the ultimate struggle between divine law and those made by man is the center of Sophocles’ Antigone. Through this expression of Greek drama, a sense of what life must have been like in the time of Sophocles comes across. In his world, women are subjugated and supposed to be silent spectators to the world around them as men’s search for power leads to incredible acts against both human and divine law. Antigone is a woman who firmly believed in these divine laws and whose actions changed the course of Thebian history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story of Antigone begins much sooner than the famous play makes known. It is filled with tragedy. Antigone is the daughter of the late king of Thebes, Oedipus. A seer told Oedipus’ own father, at the birth of his son that the king would be slain by this only son. He would then seize the throne of Thebes. He therefore banished Oedipus in order to maintain power. Years later the omen would come true. Oedipus would seize the Thebian throne, kill the king, and take Jocasta, the late king’s wife as his own. Unbeknownst to Oedipus that the man he had slain was his father and that his new wife was in fact his mother. When he learned of the truth, Oedipus blinded himself and Jocasta committed suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Together, Oedipus and Jocasta were to have four children. Their two sons were named Polynices and Eteocles while the two daughters were named Ismene and Antigone. In the palace, Oedipus stayed with his children. It was agreed upon that Polynices and Eteocles would govern the city of Thebes in alternate years, but when their quarrels and disobedience were too much to bear with, their father placed a curse upon them. Under the omen, Oedipus said that the siblings would destroy one another. The first year of rule fell upon Eteocles. When it seemed that he would not give up power, Polynices went to Argos and prepared an invasion with the ruler of the land. As a result of the invasion, the two brothers would be dead, each by the other’s hand. Power over Thebes would then fall on the brother of the late Jocasta, Creon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a man who was loyal to Thebes, Creon’s first order of business was to banish any traitors and forbid the burial of Polynices for invading the city with â€Å"foreigners. Antigone :: essays research papers Greek Tragedy: Sophocles’ Antigone   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The struggle between right and wrong, the demands between family and that of the government, and the ultimate struggle between divine law and those made by man is the center of Sophocles’ Antigone. Through this expression of Greek drama, a sense of what life must have been like in the time of Sophocles comes across. In his world, women are subjugated and supposed to be silent spectators to the world around them as men’s search for power leads to incredible acts against both human and divine law. Antigone is a woman who firmly believed in these divine laws and whose actions changed the course of Thebian history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story of Antigone begins much sooner than the famous play makes known. It is filled with tragedy. Antigone is the daughter of the late king of Thebes, Oedipus. A seer told Oedipus’ own father, at the birth of his son that the king would be slain by this only son. He would then seize the throne of Thebes. He therefore banished Oedipus in order to maintain power. Years later the omen would come true. Oedipus would seize the Thebian throne, kill the king, and take Jocasta, the late king’s wife as his own. Unbeknownst to Oedipus that the man he had slain was his father and that his new wife was in fact his mother. When he learned of the truth, Oedipus blinded himself and Jocasta committed suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Together, Oedipus and Jocasta were to have four children. Their two sons were named Polynices and Eteocles while the two daughters were named Ismene and Antigone. In the palace, Oedipus stayed with his children. It was agreed upon that Polynices and Eteocles would govern the city of Thebes in alternate years, but when their quarrels and disobedience were too much to bear with, their father placed a curse upon them. Under the omen, Oedipus said that the siblings would destroy one another. The first year of rule fell upon Eteocles. When it seemed that he would not give up power, Polynices went to Argos and prepared an invasion with the ruler of the land. As a result of the invasion, the two brothers would be dead, each by the other’s hand. Power over Thebes would then fall on the brother of the late Jocasta, Creon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a man who was loyal to Thebes, Creon’s first order of business was to banish any traitors and forbid the burial of Polynices for invading the city with â€Å"foreigners.

Consideration Essay

An Agreement here is defined as every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement defined under section 2(e) of Indian Contract Act, 1872. Making a contract is simply a way of facilitating amongst other things, the exchange of goods and services. Under a contract the, parties voluntarily assume their obligations or undertakings. Consideration is the recompense given by the party contracting to the other. 2. Consideration is the price for which the promise of the other is bought, and the promise thus given for value is enforceable. 3. Consideration means something which is of some value in the eyes of the law. 4. A valuable consideration in the sense of the law, may consist either in some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to the one party or some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. If a bargain gives a party a choice of alternative obligations, each alternative on its own must constitute sufficient consideration for the return promise. If a promise is void or voidable – e. g. , due to the incapacity of the promisor – the sufficiency of the consideration is not necessarily negated. The judges, when they exercise this power of interference, are playing an extrinsic test which frustrates the expectation of the parties. It does not follow however, that such a test is necessarily harsh, still less that it is illogical. In some of the cases the law is settled, other are shrouded in controversies; but in all of them the grounds of interference seems to be the same. Consideration made not be adequate and may, on occasion be extremely tenuous, but it must comprise ome element which can be regarded as the price of the defendant promise; and merely to repeat an existing obligation may well seem to offer nothing at all. It may be appreciated that a person, who by his official status or through the operation of the law is under a public duty to act in a certain way, is not regarded as furnishing consideration merely by promising to discharge the duty. For example, no one would expect a policeman to bargain with a citizen for the price of his protection. In the case stated the defendant argued that this meant that they were not obliged to pay for the large number if policemen who attend their ground at home matches because, in present conditions of crowd behaviour, a major police presence at the ground was necessary to preserve law and order. The Court of Appeal thought that there was a fundamental difference on the facts. In the Glassbrook case the threat to law and order was external to the parties since neither could call off the strike. In the present case, the defendant had voluntarily to put on their matches at times, typically Saturday afternoons, when large attendance and therefore large possibilities of disorder where likely, and when a substantial police presence could only be achieved by calling policemen of their rest days and paying large sum of overtime. The police authority were, therefore, entitled to be paid. When the plaintiff is bound by an existing contractual duty to the defendant : There is no consideration if all that the plaintiff does is to perform, or to promise the performance of, an obligation already imposed upon him by previous contract between him and the defendant – is illustrated by a group of thesis in the first half of 19th century. In this case the defendant where a firm of building contractors who entered into a contract for the refurbishment of a block of 27 flats. They sub – contracted the carpentry work to the plaintiff for 20,000. Although there was no formal arrangement to this effect, the plaintiff was paid money on account. After the contract had been running for some months and the plaintiff had finished the carpentry at 9 of the flats and done some preliminary work in all the rest, for which he had received some 16,200 on account, he found that he was in financial difficulties. This difficulties arose partly because the plaintiff had underestimated the cost of doing the work in the first place and partly because of faulty supervision of his work men. The plaintiff and the defendants had a meeting at which the defendants agreed to pay the plaintiff a further 10,300 at a rate of 575 per flat to be paid as each flat was completed. The plaintiff carried on work and finished some 8 further flats but only 1one further payment of 1,500 was made. The plaintiff stopped work and brought an action for damages. The defendant argued that they were not liable as they had simply promised to pay the plaintiff extra for doing what he has in any case obliged to do, that is to finish to the contract. The Court of Appeal might perhaps have found consideration in what Russell LJ described as the replacement of ‘a haphazard method of payment by a more formalised scheme involving the payment of the specified sum on the completion of each flat’ since it was clear that the under the original contract there was no express agreement for stage payments. 3. Composition with creditors : It has long been a common practise for the creditors of an impecunious debtor to make an arrangement with him where by each agrees to accept a stated percentage of his debt in full satisfaction. The search for a sufficient consideration to support so reasonable an agreement has caused the courts much embarrassments. It would appear at first sight to fall under the ban in Pinnel’s case, and such was the view adopted in 1804 by Lord Ellenborough. Two alternatives suggestions have been proffered. The first was the second thought of Lord himself. There was consideration for the composition, he suggested in 1812, in the fact that each individual creditor agreed to forgo part of his debt on the hypothesis that all the other creditors would do the ame. A moment’s reflection will expose the weakness of this argument. Such a consideration would, no doubt, suffice to support the agreement as between the creditors themselves. But, if the debtor sought to rely upon it, he would be met by the immediate objection that he himself had furnished to return for the creditors’ promises to him, and, as already observed, it is a cardinal rule of the law that the consideration must move from the promisee. A second solution is to say that no creditor will be allowed to go behind the composition agreement, to the prejudice either of the other creditors or of the debtor himself, because this would be a fraud upon all the parties concerned. The solution was suggested by Lord Tenterden in 1818 and supported by Willes J in 1863, and it has since won general approbation. But it is frankly an argument ab inconvenienti and evades rather than meets the difficulty. Where the plaintiff is bound by an existing contractual duty to a third party : When the plaintiff performs, or promises to perform, an obligation already imposed upon him by a contract previously made, not between him and the defendant, but himself and the third party. The question whether such a promise or a performance affords suficient consideration has provoked a voluminous literature – more generous, indeed, then the practical implications would seem to warrant. In a case mentioned here the defendant agreed to pay money to he plaintiff in return for the plaintiff promise (a) to execute a separation deed and b)to pay his debts to a third party. The promise to execute the separation deed raised questions of public policy but was held good consideration.

Oscar Triplett Case Analysis

Triplett had been in insane asylums before and was released but still considered mentally unstable, which reflects poorly upon the Canadian justice system at that time. At the inquest, various people admitted that they knew he was a danger in the days before he died yet only one person attempted anything and that strikes me as odd. The third discrepancy is why Mrs.. Temple was not punished in any way after having killed Triplett. She admitted that her shot took his life, the coroner's report corroborated with this admission of guilt and yet, she was not punished.Again, there re various reasons that could explain this and I will briefly look at each one. The fourth discrepancy Is how the police force and the detectives appear so uninterested In this case. A proper Investigation did not start until December 17th, 4 days after the death of Triplett. Even after the investigation had begun, there was no urgency to come to the bottom of what really happened. On December 13th 1918 Mrs.. Loi s May Temple shot, and killed, James Oscar Triplett in defense of her honor, her life and her daughter's life.That afternoon Jacob Statesman went to the Temples' house to make sure that Triplett had not harmed Mrs.. Temple or her daughter in any way. Shortly after Statesman had arrived they became aware that Triplett was at the house. Triplett kept threatening Mrs.. Temple and her young daughter, using obscene language, so both Statesman and Temple pointed guns at Triplett until he exited the house. Triplett began killing chickens in the hen house, throwing them around, until he finally went down to the river. When Triplett returned he climbed on top of the roof and sat there, yelling threats and random nonsense. On her way to the barn Mrs..Temple shot at Triplett, and both Statesman and Temple thought she had killed him then but they were incorrect. While Temple was at the barn Statesman tried to coax Triplett off the roof, firing four shots in his direction in the process. He even tually succeeded and then began chasing Triplett around the house while Mrs.. Temple was inside. Triplett tried entering the house through the back door but during his attempt both Statesman and Temple shot at him, Temple firing through the door and Statesman firing directly at him. They both agreed that it was Mrs.. Temple's shot that had killed him, and not Statesman's shot.For the most part, the statements of Jacob Statesman and Lois May Temple regarding the death of Oscar Triplett were identical. However, there were slight differences that were peculiar. The first noticeable difference was when they were describing when Mrs.. Temple first saw Triplett on the porch. She claimed that she had seen him before she reached the top of the hill and that he had opened the cellar door before Statesman reached the top of the hill. However, Statesman claimed that she had reached the top of the hill Detour seen screamed Tanat Earliest was on near porch, Ana Tanat en Ana wellness's t opening of the cellar door.The simplest explanation for this difference is that Statesman is smaller than Mrs.. Temple in height and that gives him a different view of the world than she has. Another explanation could be that during traumatic events, small details sometimes become trivial and are forgotten by the person in question. The second peculiarity is the issue of the guns. In both his statements Statesman recalled Mrs.. Temple asking him for help with loading the magazines; in the statement he gave at the inquest he claimed that had to show her how the guns worked and how to fill the magazine.The claim he made during his inquest statement is curious because Temple had already fired a shot before asking him for elf. Another reason it is curious is that Temple never mentioned needing help with how to work the guns in either of her statements. One explanation for this is that Statesman felt emasculated by the whole affair because he was unable to properly protect Mrs.. Temple and her c hild. Therefore, in his statements he tried to make himself appear more manly and helpful than he really was during the ordeal. The third difference in their statements is how many shots Statesman really fired.In his initial statement, he claimed that he had shot six in total – four whilst he was on the of, one discharge whilst chasing Triplett, and one when Triplett was trying to enter the house. However, during the inquest he only mentioned the last two shots; he said that he had never made it onto the roof, but in his initial statement he claimed he had made it onto the roof and that he had fired four shots at Triplett. Again, this could have been Statesman's way of fighting the emasculation he felt he had suffered. It is odd that he felt the need to make this claim in his first statement, when Mrs..Temple never mentioned it in either of her statements. Every person in the community agreed that Oscar Triplett was not a sane man. He had been an inmate in the Insane Asylum a t Pomona, but had been released for unknown reasons. It is unusual that every member of the community thought he was insane, and yet only one person admitted to having made any type of inquiry into the reasons behind his release. Dry James Miller bore witness that Triplett was â€Å"a man of unbalanced mind. † He felt that Triplett should never have been released from the asylum because he was a danger to himself and to the community.At the inquest, Dry Miller said that immediately after hearing that Triplett had been released from the asylum, he annotated the Provincial Police to discuss Triplet's liberty. According to Dry Miller, they told him that nothing could be done unless Triplett performed some act that would make another arrest possible. Despite Dry. Miller's personal inquiry into Triplet's liberty, the authorities did nothing until after his death and after the inquest. Attached to the verdict was a rider that stated that a full inquiry should be made into Triplet's release from Pomona, and his apparent rehabilitation when he was so obviously insane.James Chalmers had spent 36 hours with Triplett in the days leading up to his death. During this time, he noticed that Triplett was acting in an odd manner; he was restless and talkative, quite unlike himself. Chalmers admitted that after his last interaction with Triplett he was convinced that Triplett was insane, again, but he neglected to inform anyone on the basis that Triplet had done nothing to Justify an arrest. Levi Spangle encountered Oscar Triplett at his (Spangle) residence on the day before Triplet's death.He claimed that Triplett had walked Insane Ana Immolate Degas teenager toners Ana acting strange . HIS octagons caused Spangle to assume that Triplett was not of sane mind; Spangle left for own immediately after Triplett had departed and reported to the police, but they were unable to locate Triplett. Mrs.. Spangle concurred with her husband's opinion of Triplet's sanity. She alleged that Triplet's actions made her fearful for her life and the life of her daughter. Of all the people who gave testimony at the inquest, Mr.. Spangle was the only one who had notified the police of Triplet's insanity.It is peculiar that only one person had enough sense to notify the authorities that Triplett could possibly be a danger to others or himself. This is especially peculiar because everyone seemed to agree that he was insane and that he would end up in the asylum again. Triplet's liberty shows obvious error in the Canadian Justice system at this time, because he should not have been released from the asylum at Pomona. It also shows the misplaced faith that people had in the Justice system, since everyone assumed that the law would eventually step in and apprehend Triplett again, recommitting him to the insane asylum.When Mrs.. Temple was tried for Oscar Triplet's death, the Jury only took fifteen minutes to reach a verdict. Temple had admitted to killing Triplett and all th e physical evidence seemed to corroborate her Tory, yet the Jury verdict was that of â€Å"Justifiable homicide. † The Jury felt that Mrs.. Temple should have been commended for her actions because Triplett was assaulting her in her own home. It is possible that the Jury looked at this case and saw a poor, defenseless woman trying to protect herself and her daughter from a known lunatic.The Jury could have taken pity on her, because she basically had to decide between life and death. Her gender had to have swayed the Jury verdict because it is doubtful that they would have come to the same conclusion if a man had fired the fatal shot. This is so because not only Mrs.. Temple's life was at stake, but also the honor and the life of her infant daughter. This is very likely because the society at that time was an inherently chauvinistic society; women and men were not seen as equals, and women were considered to have less rights than men.Another possible reason for the lack of pu nishment is that most people felt that Mrs.. Temple did them a favor by ridding the world of a lunatic like Triplett. Therefore, why should she be punished for making the community a safer, more ordinary area to live in? The police who investigated the death of Oscar Triplett appeared to have little or no interest in the case, and arriving at the truth. A proper investigation into Triplet's death was not launched until 16 December 1918, three days after his death. Neither the coroner nor the investigating detective from Install arrived until early morning on 17 December 1918.There was no apparent urgency by anyone to come to the bottom of what happened: indeed the detective often took breaks to satiate his hunger and he took his time in pursuing the truth. Constable Marks received a wire on 13 December that notified him of Triplet's lunacy, but he did not leave for Horrors until the following day. He claimed this was because he required assistance in handling Oscar Triplett, yet he arrived in Horrors alone. Constable Marks alleged that even if he had left for Horrors immediately after receiving the wire, he would not have reached the Temples' residence before Triplet's death.It is possible that he felt compelled to mention this because he felt slightly guilty that the case transpired this way; however it shows the town people's disinterest in everything concerning I reelect – no one put too much effort In along Walt ml. A possible reason Deanna the authorities' disinterest in this case was because they saw little point in investigating the death of a lunatic. It would be interesting to know whether they would have acted in the same manner if Triplett had been a sane man, even though it is unlikely that they would have been so lax about investigating the case.This lack of interest shows the Canadian Justice system's predisposition to Judging the importance of various cases based on the character of the victim. Mrs.. Lois May Temple admitted to having kil led Oscar James Triplett, and the evidence and eyewitness testimony of Jacob Statesman did not disagree with her. However, the case document of Oscar Triplet's death had various peculiarities that made the hole affair seem quite unusual. The document shows human error – that of eyewitness testimony; this is a result of the human brain working in mysterious ways.In the event of a trauma some details will remain engraved in one's memory, no matter how insignificant they are; other details will be blocked by one's memory as being too traumatic. This was most likely the case concerning Mrs.. Temple and Jacob Statesman. The case document also shows how life worked in remote communities of Canada in the early 20th century. In those years, people were less apprehensive of the criminally insane than people today. If a known lunatic, such as Oscar Triplett, were allowed to roam free in a 21st century society there would be a colossal outcry by the members of society.They would be more outspoken about their fears and trepidation as a result of his liberty than people in 1918 would be. The case document also gives some insight into how the Canadian Justice system worked, especially in remote areas of the country. The Justice system was more lax in those times than they are today, as were the police. They were also more inclined to be biased about issues such as gender when looking at various cases unlike the system n place today, which is generally not allowed to be biased on such things. This is a result of early 20th century societies being more sexist than societies in the 21st century.